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Show text Show cached source Open source URL	I pusės istorikai romantikai Teodoras Narbutas ir Simonas Daukantas pirmieji į Lietuvos istoriją įvedė Sakso Gramatiko ir kitų Skandinavijos šaltinių duomenis. Tačiau jie tuos duomenis vertino nekritiškai, be to, jiems buvo neprieinami pirminiai šaltiniai2.
Compare text pages Compare HTM pages Open source URL Open target URL Define viduramziu.istorija.net as primary domain	The prominent, romantically minded Lithuanian historians of the 19th century, Teodor Narbutt and Simonas Daukantas, were the first to introduce the data supplied by Saxo Grammaticus and other Scandinavian sources into the history of Lithuania. However, they did not evaluate these data critically, moreover, they had no access to the primary sources.2

Čia glaustai apibūdinant T. Baranausko knygą ,,Lietuvos valstybės ištakos” tepaliesti svarbiausi, toli gražu ne visi autoriaus teiginiai. Ši knyga neabejotinai jau vien dėl pasirinktos temos sudomins skaitytoją, ypač istorikus.

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Here, briefly describing the book “The formation of the Lithuanian State” by T. Baranauskas, just the main, by no means all statements of the author are touched. This book undoubtedly will excite the curiosity of the reader, and especially of the historians, already because of the chosen theme. It may be treated differently by the latter; some conclusions may be discussed. But this study is significant exactly for this reason that the events of so significant period of the Lithuanian history are showed and interpreted in a new light.

Ta proga verta paminėti, jog prieduose pateikti net 48 kunigaikščių vardai, o iš viso, jo nuomone, žinomi 74 lietuvių (aukštaičių ir žemaičių) kunigaikščiai. Jų vardai dažnai rekonstruoti iš tėvavardžių, užrašytų rusų šaltiniuose, ateityje, manyčiau, reikalaujantys nemažo patikslinimo.

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The author is trying to discuss the development of the Lithuanian State in the 13th century. On this occasion it is worth to mention that in the appendices as many as 48 names of the dukes are given, and in all, according to his opinion, 74 Lithuanian (Aukshtaitian and Samogitian) dukes are known. Their names are frequently reconstructed from the patronymics, recorded in the Russian sources, and, in my opinion, require greater accuracy in the future. This is just a beginning of a big work.

Pagal populiarų aiškinimą, helespontiečių vardas Padauguvio gyventojams buvo taikomas todėl, kad Dauguva ėjo svarbus prekybinis kelias į Graikiją, jungęs Baltiją su tikruoju Helespontu (Dardanelų sąsiauriu)21.

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In his account of Hading, Saxo mentions "Daugava town" of the Hellespontians, which corresponds with the Semigallian hillfort Daugmale. According to the popular explanation, the name "Hellespontians" was applied to the inhabitants of the shores of the River Daugava because the Daugava was an important trade route to Greece, which connected the Baltic Sea with the real Hellespont (the Dardanel straits).21 The end of the trade route, however, was not Hellespont, but Constantinople, furthermore, it remains unclear why only the inhabitants of the beginning of this route were called Hellespontians. In Paul Johansen's view, Hellespont is a translation of the Livian name of Daugava – Väina – which mean "straits of the sea".22 But if this were so, Saxo should have been calling all the straits of the sea "hellesponts." Instead, he even called Daugava "Duna," not Hellespont.

Darbe bandoma identifikuoti Lietuvos piliakalnius su kunigaikščių vardais. Iš tiesų šios pastangos labai patrauklios, viliojančios, tačiau tai – ateities vizija. Sveikintina, kad ji keliama, tačiau reikalinga ilgų ir nuoseklių tyrinėjimų.

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The attempts to identify the hillforts of Lithuania with the names of the dukes are made. In fact these attempts are very attractive, alluring, but this is a vision of future. It is welcomed that it is raised, but it needs long and consecutive investigations. In the same time it should be said that young scholars – both historians and archaeologists – are already taking this work. Among the latter the investigations of the archaeologist Gintautas Zabiela on the Šeimyniškėliai hillfort are to mention, which already allow him to localise the famous Voruta.

Islandų sagos, kuriomis rėmėsi Saksas, šio epizodo nepatvirtina, todėl jis laikytinas neistorišku28. Tačiau Saksas čia greičiausiai naudojosi vikingų epochos geografinėmis žiniomis, kurios gana įdomios.

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Saxo ascribed the inhabitants of the East Baltic countries to different camps: the Curonians and Estonians (or Aistians) were fighting on the side of the Swedes,26 while the Livians – on the side of the Danes.27 The Icelandic sagas, which were the source of information for Saxo Grammaticus, do not confirm this episode, and it should thus be treated as not historical.28 However, it is very likely that Saxo was using geographical knowledge of the Viking Age in his account, which is rather interesting. The ascription of the Livians and the Balts to different camps could reflect the reality of their actual confrontation in the Viking Age.29 It should also be noted that Saxo consistently ascribes the Curonians and Estonians (Aistians) to the Swedish sphere of influence,30 what is also confirmed by contemporary sources.31

Tačiau A. Mickevičius kritiškiau įvertino Sakso minimų įvykių chronologiją ir visas legendines žinias apie baltus priskyrė vikingų epochai, o Z. Raulinaitis Frodžio III ir Jarmeriko veiksmus prieš baltus klaidingai datavo VI viduriu ir II puse13.

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Z. Raulinaitis focused his attention on the military and political history of the Balts, while A. Mickevičius additionally sought to reveal traits of the Balts' social structure. Both authors essentially considered the information of Saxo Grammaticus a reliable source and used all of it, sometimes accepting it too much at face value. They did not, for example, recognise the epos of Hermanaric in Saxo's text and considered Jarmeric a Danish king. However, A. Mickevičius did evaluate the chronology of the events mentioned by Saxo more critically, and ascribed all the legendary information on the Balts to the Viking Age, while Z. Raulinaitis dated the military operations of Frothi and Jarmeric against the Balts erroneously to the middle and 2nd half of the 6th century.13

Dažnai autoriai, ėmęsi tokių žingsnių, nesuvokia, kad ne vieno ar kito reiškinio senumas prisideda prie istorijos unikalumo sukūrimo, o kad dažnas istorinis darinys pats savaime – nepaisant šimtmečių ar dešimtmečių senumo – yra įdomus ir tirtinas. Tačiau bet kurį istorinį reiškinį reikėtų vertinti siejant jį su geografine ir istorine erdve.

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Writing critical reviews is still unusual in Lithuania. Often plots are seen behind each of them. In spite of these suspicions, which I may draw upon myself, I was stimulated to share my thoughts publicly by the threat of the newest mythologisation of the Lithuanian history, artificial making it look older. Often the authors, undertaking such steps, doesn’t realise, that it is not the oldness of one or other historical phenomenon, which contributes to the creation of uniqueness of history, but that a lot of historical phenomena in themselves – without regard to their oldness in centuries or decades – are interesting and must be researched. However every historical phenomenon must be evaluated in connection with its geographical and historical space. The work of Tomas Baranauskas should not be discussed, because it doesn't mach these essential criteria of research of a historical phenomenon.

Klaipėda, 1996, p. 37: “Antai Petro Dusburgiečio kronikos liudijimu Sambijos žemės kariuomenę sudarė 4000 raitelių ir 40000 pėstininkų. Šiame šaltinyje nurodytais skaičiais pasikliauti rizikinga. (...) Tačiau tai nekliudo manyti, kad Petras Dusburgietis galėjo nurodyti ir tikslų raitelių ir pėstininkų santykį 1:10. Šis, nors ir santykinis, rezultatas yra be galo svarbus mums baltų kariuomenės struktūros požiūriu.”

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a) “On the base of the data of Peter Dusburg about Sembia Alvydas Nikžentaitis is judging that the number of riders was correlating with the number of foot soldiers in the Baltic lands as 1:10.” (p. 140). Compare: Nikžentaitis A. Nuo Daumanto iki Gedimino. Klaipėda, 1996, p. 37: “For example according to the testimony of the chronicle of Peter Dusburg the army of the Sembia land was made up by 4000 riders and 40000 foot soldiers. It is risky to rely on numbers, given in this source. (...) However it doesn’t prevent from thinking that Peter Dusburg could point out exact correlation between riders and foot soldiers 1:10. This, though correlative result, is very important for us in terms of structure of the Baltic army.”

Šis mūšis, kuriame švedų karalius Sigurdas Hringas įveikė danų karalių Haraldą Karo Dantį, tradiciškai datuojamas apie 750 m.24 Tačiau istorinis Haraldas, kuris nesėkmingai kovojo dėl valdžios Danijoje, gyveno IX a.

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Saxo Grammaticus mentions the Balts in his account of the battle of Bråvalla. This battle, in which the Swedish king Sigurd Hring overcame the Danish King Harald the War Tooth, is dated traditionally to c. 750.24 However, the historical Harald, who was fighting unsuccessfully for power in Denmark, lived in the 1st half of the 9th century. In 812, 823, and 826 he was asking for help from the Frankish emperor in his fight against the sons of Godfred; they, in their turn, were seeking help in Sweden.25 In 827, Harald was finally expelled from Denmark, and this event could be reflected in the legend about the battle of Bråvalla.

Jos lokalizavimas prie Baltijos – tik Sakso Gramatiko išradimas, nežinomas kitiems epiniams šaltiniams. Tačiau čia atsispindi bendros Sakso žinios apie etninius santykius Pabaltijyje. Piktąjį patarėją Biką, kurio patarimu Jarmerikas nužudė Svanhildą, Saksas laiko lyvių karaliaus sūnumi, kuris pabėgo pas Jarmeriką iš helespontiečių nelaisvės.

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Jordan derives Svanhild from the Rosomons, but Saxo treats her as the princess of the Hellespontians who lived in the East Baltic countries. Her localisation near the Baltic Sea is an invention of Saxo Grammaticus alone; this localisation is not known to other epical sources that present the legend of Svanhild. However, Saxo's general knowledge concerning ethnic relations in the Baltic countries is reflected here. Saxo considered the evil counsellor Bicco, by whose advice Jarmeric killed Svanhild, to be the son of the Livian king, who escaped to Jarmeric from Hellespontian captivity. Thus, the Hellespontians lived in the vicinity of the Livians and were having conflicts with them. This ethnic situation should be linked with the Viking Age, as should Saxo's other knowledge about the Hellespontians.

Terminas ,,helespontiečiai“ nurodo greičiau spėjamą žiemgalių kilmę, o ne jų gyvenamą vietą. XIII a. enciklopedistas Baltramiejus Anglas aiškino: ,,Žiemgaliai taip vadinami todėl kad iš galų, arba galatų, bei vietinių gyventojų yra kilę“ (Unde Semigalli sunt dicti, qui ex Gallis, siue Galatis, et illis populis processerunt)23.

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It is very likely that the term "Hellespontians" refers not to the place inhabited by the Semigallians, but to their supposed origin. Bartholomew the Englishman, encyclopaedist of the 13th century, wrote: "The Semigallians are thusly called because they originate from the Galls, or the Galats, and the local people" (Unde Semigalli sunt dicti, qui ex Gallis, siue Galatis, et illis populis processerunt).23 Thus, the name of the Semigallians was interpreted as "semi-Galats". The Galats lived in Asia Minor – not near Hellespont, but close to it.

apgynė disertaciją ,,Kuršiai IX–XII amžiuje“, kurios pagrindu paskelbė keletą straipsnių11. Vienas jų skirtas specialiai Sakso Gramatiko informacijai apie kuršius, tačiau autorius aptarė ir žinias apie sembus12.

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Recently, Lithuanian historians Zigmas Raulinaitis and Arturas Mickevičius have discussed Saxo Grammaticus' information on the Balts. In 1966–1976 in the U.S.A., Zigmas Raulinaitis published a series of articles and two booklets about the interrelations between the Balts and the Scandinavians in the Viking Age, in which he heavily made use of the data of Saxo Grammaticus.10 In 1993, Arturas Mickevičius defended a dissertation entitled "The Curonians in the 9–12th century," on whose basis he published several articles.11 One of them is devoted to Saxo's information on the Curonians, although he also discussed information on the Sembians.12

Autorius daug dėmesio skiria Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės susidarymui. Pirmiausia, aptaręs šio reiškinio prielaidas – Rusijos ekspansijos pradžią, to meto politinius įvykius Lietuvoje, plačiau stabteli ties 1183 metų žygiu ir nurodo lietuviams palankias jo pasekmes.

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The author grants much attention to the formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. First of all, having discussed the preconditions of this phenomenon – the beginning of the Russian expansion, the events of this time in Lithuania, he speaks more extensively about the raid of 1183 and its favourable consequences for the Lithuanians. Such successful raids were organised in the 12th and 13th centuries against the other lands (they are shown on the mentioned map, Fig. 30, p. 172). In general, according to the author’s opinion, the formation of the GDL began in the 11th century, and by the end of the 12th century Lithuania may be already conditionally called the GDL.

Palyginkime Sakso ir Jordano žinias. Abiejuose pasakojimuose Hermanarikas pirmiausia užvaldo germanų gentis (Jordanas mini herulius, Saksas kalba apie danus ir švedus). Paskui, pagal Jordaną, Hermanarikas užkariavo slavus (venedus), o ,,taip pat ir aisčių tautą, kuri gyvena tolimiausiame Germanijos jūros krante, pajungė savo protu ir šaunumu“15. Saksas apie viską pasakoja plačiau. Nukariavęs slavus, Jarmerikas ,,nusiaubė sembų, kuršių ir daugybę Rytų genčių”.

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Let us compare the information of Saxo and Jordan. In both accounts, Hermanaric takes possession of the Germanic tribes first (Jordan mentions the Heruls, Saxo speaks of the Danes and Swedes). Then, according to Jordan, Hermanaric conquered the Slavs (the Veneds) and "also the Aistian nation, which live on the most remote shore of the Germanic Sea, subjugated by his wit and prowess."15 Saxo recounts everything more extensively. After the conquest of the Slavs, Jarmeric "devastated the Sembians, the Curonians, and many tribes of the East". The Slavs, taking advantage of this, rose in rebellion, and thus, on his way back, Jarmeric dealt with them once more.16

Šioje versijoje Ragnaras paskiria savo sūnų Hvitserką Skitijos karaliumi. Tačiau Daksonas Hvitserką įveikia apgaule, pirklių vežimuose paslėpęs savo karius. Už tai Ragnaras nužudė Daksoną – ,,pasiuntė į Utgardą”.

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Saxo inserts yet a third version into the second, between the battle lost by Daxon and the demnd for a tribute from him. In this version, Daxon is assisted not by the Ruthenians, but rather by the Scythians, his relatives from his mother's side. In this version, Ragnar appoints his son Hwitserk as the king of Scythia. But Daxon overcomes Hwitserk by guile, hiding his warriors in merchant wagons. Ragnar kills Daxon for this – "sent him to Utgard". Saxo, however, did not understand this expression and thus ended the story by the second version, forcing Ragnar to generously return Daxon from exile and to be satisfied with the tribute.

Net 10 iš 15 Sakso žinučių apie kuršius, sembus ir žiemgalius yra pirmosiose 9 ,,Danų istorijos“ knygose, kuriose istorinė tradicija sumišusi su mitologija, o tai labai apsunkina jos interpretaciją. Tačiau istorinių žinių apie vikingų epochos baltus trūkumas verčia tyrinėti Sakso Gramatiko legendas ir bandyti jose ieškoti istorinių įvykių pėdsakų.

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Information on the Balts provided by Saxo Grammaticus and other Scandinavian sources is known to Lithuanian historians since the 1st half of the 19th century, but up till now it has still been very poorly investigated. As many as 10 out of 15 of Saxo's passages on the Curonians, Sembians, and Semigallians are in the first 9 books of "Danish history," where the historical tradition is mixed up with mythology and this makes the passages' interpretation very difficult. It is the lack of historical information on the Balts of the Viking Age, which compels us to investigate the legends provided by Saxo Grammaticus and to try to find some of the actual traces of historical events in them.

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To daryti neleidžia jau vien darbo apimtis. Baranausko pirmtakai šiai temai galėjo skirti daugiausiai straipsnį, o dabar mūsų rankose daugiau kaip 300 puslapių darbas, su kuriuo susipažinti reikia laiko.

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The statement that the new study doesn’t differ from the works of the precursors is somewhat unfounded, of course. Making such statement is impeded at least by the size of the work. The precursors of Baranauskas could devote to this theme no more then one article, while now a work of more than 300 pages is in our hands, and one needs time to get acquainted with it. However, having no intention to intrigue the reader anymore, I can say at once, that this is the only difference from the works of the earlier historians, and theses, supposedly grounding the earlier formation of the Lithuanian State, remained the same. Baranauskas, as well as other supporters of such theory, treats the intensified Lithuanian raids on the neighbouring countries as the main indication of the formation of the Lithuanian State and bounds the beginning of the state with their intensification.

, o šio darinio įtvirtinimas buvo siejamas su Mindaugu. Tačiau šiai, atrodo, nepajudinamai tezei savus kontrargumentus iškėlė jaunas istorikas Tomas Baranauskas. Pagrindinė jo naujos knygos tezė – Lietuvos valstybė susikūrė XII a.

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The history of the formation of the Lithuanian State was researched by a lot of historians. It seems that currently the opinion was settled among the historians, that the state formed itself during the 13th century and the consolidation of this structure was linked with Mindaugas. However against this, as it seems, unshakeable thesis young historian Tomas Baranauskas had raised his arguments. The main thesis of his new book – the Lithuanian State formed itself in the end of the 12th century – received not a little attention. The book is being bought, discussed in the lobby interviews of the historians.

ViduramÅ¾iÅ³ Lietuvos p...

Lietuva, tiesioginė Viduramžių Lietuvos paveldėtoja, šiandien apima tik nedidelę senosios Lietuvos valstybės dalį. Tačiau tai – lietuvių etninės žemės, kuriose prasidėjo Lietuvos istorija ir kurios sudarė Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės branduolį.

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Литва, прямая наследница Средневековой Литвы, сегодня охватывает лишь небольшую часть древнего Литовского государства. Однако это – этнические литовские земли, в которых началась история Литвы и которые составляли ядро Великого Княжества Литовского. Собственно Литва (Lithuania Propria) всегда отличалась от земель подвластной Литве Руси, литовцы отличались от русинов своим языком и верой (сначала – языческой, после 1387 г. – католической).

4. “Tačiau į knygos metodologiją atkreipti dėmesį privertė pats Baranauskas, kuriam žodis “marksizmas” – keiksmažodis, savotiška etiketė, kurią galima priklijuoti kitaminčiui. ” Iš tiesų knygoje niekam neklijuojama marksizmo etiketė, o Lietuvos istorikų tarpe marksistu pavadintas tik Edvardas Gudavičius, kuris pats ne kartą tai yra viešai deklaravęs, ir apie tai užsiminta tik dėl to, kad jo marksistinė metodologija, knygos autoriaus manymu, nulemia konkrečias išvadas apie Lietuvos valstybės formavimąsi (p. 91–92).

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4. “But Baranauskas himself forced me to direct attention to the methodology of the book, because the word “Marxism” is a swear-word for him, something like label, which may be stuck on those, who are thinking other way.” In fact nobody is labelled as “Marxist” in the book. Among the Lithuanian historians only Edvardas Gudavičius is said to be a Marxist, because he declared this publicly more than one time, and, the author believes, this results in concrete conclusions on the formation of the Lithuanian State.

Panašus motyvas būdingas daugeliui tautų. Pats Hvitserkas iš pradžių greičiausiai nebuvo siejamas su Ragnaro ciklo legendomis ir jo sūnumi padarytas ne anksčiau, kaip XII a.35 Taigi trečioji legendos versija yra paveikta kitų legendų, nutolusi nuo pirminio pasakojimo ir iš esmės nepatikima.

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It was noted long ago that the way in which Daxon overcame Hwitserk resembles a legend about Oleg's victory over Askold and Dir and the seizure of Kiev. In both cases, the attackers feigned being merchants. A similar motif is characteristic of many nations. In the beginning, Hwitserk himself was most likely not linked with the legends of Ragnar's cycle and was not made his son any earlier than the 12th century.35 Thus, the third version of the legend is influenced by other legends, digressed from the original account, and is essentially unreliable.

Show text Show cached source Open source URL	Marksizmas pats savaime nėra nestudijuotinas mokslas, jeigu jo teorijomis naudojamasi kritiškai. Tačiau į knygos metodologiją atkreipti dėmesį privertė pats Baranauskas, kuriam žodis “marksizmas” – keiksmažodis, savotiška etiketė, kurią galima priklijuoti kitaminčiui.
Compare text pages Compare HTM pages Open source URL Open target URL Define viduramziu.istorija.net as primary domain	Marxism by itself is not a science, which shouldn’t be studied, if its theories are used critically. But Baranauskas himself forced me to direct attention to the methodology of the book, because the word “Marxism” is a swear-word for him, something like label, which may be stuck on those, who are thinking other way.

Jau ir anksčiau tokios galimybės buvo aptarinėjamos kitų istorikų darbuose, iš kurių išskirtinas lenkų istoriko Henryko Paszkiewicziaus darbas, todėl, savaime suprantama, yra įdomu paimti neseniai pasirodžiusią knygą į rankas ir pasižiūrėti, kas naujo atrasta, kad į istoriografijos aruodus atidėta teorija vėl atgaivinama.

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Tomas Baranauskas had raised by no means a unique thesis. Already earlier such possibilities were discussed in the works of the other historians, among which the work of Polish historian Henryk Paszkiewicz must be singled out. Therefore, naturally, it is interesting to take in hands recently published book and look, what new facts are discovered that the theory, put aside to the granaries of historiography, is revived again.

Show text Show cached source Open source URL	Liepos 6-osios, Mindaugo karūnavimo – Valstybės dienos, išvakarėse knygynuose pasirodė Tomo Baranausko monografija “Lietuvos valstybės ištakos”. Ši knyga – drąsus mėginimas naujai pažvelgti į daugybės istorikų tyrinėtą, tačiau iki šiol nepakankamai gerai pažintą pirmąjį Lietuvos valstybės raidos tarpsnį.
Compare text pages Compare HTM pages Open source URL Open target URL Define viduramziu.istorija.net as primary domain	On the eve of the 6th of July, Mindaugas’ crowning – State day, a monograph “The formation of the Lithuanian State” by Tomas Baranauskas appeared in the bookstores. This book is a brave attempt to cast a new glance to the first stage of the development of the Lithuanian State, which was researched by a lot of historians, but still is not known good enough.

Danų kovas su kuršiais Saksas sieja ir su Roriko vardu. Kuršiai ir švedai, anksčiau mokėję danams ,,kasmetinę duoklę”, Rorikui tapus Danijos karaliumi, puolė Daniją. Prie sukilimo prisidėjo ir slavai bei daugelis kitų genčių, kurios išsirinko vieną karalių.

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Saxo also connects the battles of the Danes against the Curonians with the name of Rorik. The Curonians and Swedes, who used to pay an "annual tribute" to the Danes, attacked Denmark when Rorik became King of Denmark. The Slavs and many other tribes joined the revolt and elected one king to reign over all. Rorik defeated these "barbarians" in a sea battle.60 Then he dealt with the rest of the Slavs, whom he forced to obey him and to once again pay him tribute.

ViduramÅ¾iÅ³ Lietuvos p...

Ukraina Lietuvos sudėtyje buvo daugiau kaip 200 metų (1362–1569 m.). Lietuvos periodas laikomas vienu iš šviesesnių Ukrainos istorijos laikotarpių. Lietuvos valdymas pasižymėjo tolerancija ir pagarba senosioms tradicijoms, skirtingai nuo Aukso Ordos valdžios, nuo kurios lietuviai ukrainiečius išvadavo, ir tautinės priespaudos, kurią ukrainiečiai patyrė, patekę į Lenkijos sudėtį.

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Украина в составе Литвы находилась более 200 лет (1362–1569 гг.). Литовский период считается одним из более светлых периодов в украинской истории. Литовское правление отметилось толерантностью и уважением к древним традициям, в отличие от власти Золотой Орды, от которой литовцы украинцев освободили, и национального гнета, который украинцы пережили, попав под власть Польши. Однако наследие Литвы для украинцев имеет меньшее значение, чем для белорусов, так как их национальный идентитет основывается на наследии Киевской Руси и Казаческого государства XVII в.

Dėmesį patraukė T. Baranausko knyga ,,Lietuvos valstybės ištakos”, kurios pavadinimas labai siejasi su mano neseniai pasirodžiusia knyga ,,Lietuva valstybės priešaušriu”, tačiau labai skirtingo turinio.

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My attention was attracted by book “The formation of the Lithuanian State” by T. Baranauskas, the title of which is closely related with recently published my book “Lithuania at the dawn of statehood” [Regina Volkaitė-Kulikauskienė. Lietuva valstybės priešaušriu. Vilnius: Vaga, 2001, 471 p.], though its content is very different. T. Baranauskas is searching exhaustively for the answers to the question, raised by him, basing himself mainly on the written sources and abundant literature, which is concerning sometimes on much later times. Practically this is research on the development of the political organisation before the emergence of the state.